Hetauda city

Hetauda (हेटौडा) is a small town and municipality and seat of Makwanpur District in the Narayani Zone of southern Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 53,836 people living in 10,420 individual households.[1]It is 132 km from the capital Kathmandu via the old Tribhuwan Highway. There are now two alternate roads that are less than 80 km. They are, however, not black topped yet. The city is enclosed by three rivers, the Rapti to the west, the Samari to the north and the Karra to the south. It is one the important industrial regions of Nepal. The settlement could have started due to its location at the meeting point of two major highways - East-West Highway and Tribhuwan Rajpath.

Contents[hide]1 Physiography 2 Transport 2.1 Road 2.2 Railways 3 References 4 External links 5 External links [edit] PhysiographyHetauda is one of the cleanest and greenest cities in Nepal. Due to its geographical features and its climate, it has been a popular choice for people migrating from the northern hilly regions to the south and. Hetauda is a doon, which means that it has a valley like geography. It is surrounded by hills: the Mahabharata range in the north and the Siwalik range in the south. The rivers Rapti, Samari, and Karra run through this area and flow southwest to meet Narayani, one of the bigger and popular rivers in the nation.It is an hour's drive from the Nepalese border city of Birgunj, which is adjacent to its Indian counterpart, Raxaul. Both the existing highways to the capital city Kathmandu - Tribhuwan Highway and the East-West Highway, aka Mahendra Highway that trails the length of the nation - traverse through this city. With so many entry and exit points leading in and out of this town, Hetauda is set to grow into a commercial powerhouse if only the country realized its potential.Hetauda is also popular for its industries. Hetauda Industrial District (HID) is the biggest among the industrial districts in the nation. Not only it houses some of the biggest industries in the nation but also shelters the cottage and medium scale industries.Hetauda is mostly a working-class residential town, and therefore most people here are either employed by the industries or the government. Individual entrepreneurship tends to favor investment into transportation sector. Trucking is thus a popular business proposition as majority of goods plying to Kathmandu goes through this city.Among the big industries, Hetauda boasts of a cement factory whose production is aided by the ample supply of limestone that come from the northern Hills that form the base of the Mahabharata range. This limestone is blasted off of the quarry with the use of dynamites and then transported via ropeway directly to the Factory's production unit, which is situated 11 kilometres south across the town. Recently though, the use of the ropeway has declined tremendously due to lack of care and maintenance.Among the popular attractions of Hetauda is the unique Martyr Memorial Park which was constructed to honor the martyrs of Nepal, including the ones who lost their lives since the time of British colonial wars to the ones who overthrew the autocratic Panchayat system in 1989. The Park has become a tourist spot since its completion in 1994. The main attraction of the park are the sculptures of these martyrs that are sculpted on one big boulder. The sculpting of the faces was accomplished by the student volunteers of Nepal Lalit Campus.Similarly, Makwanpur Gadhi is another site east of the city, a fort of historic importance dating back to the unification process of Nepal. Prithvi Narayan Shah, the king that led the unification of the country into a greater Nepal, was married to the princess of Makawanpur whose father was a king of the Sen dynasty that ruled Makawanpur. Historians observe that this marriage, in fact, was a political strategy by King Prithvi Narayan Shah, who saw the strategic benefit of an alliance with Makwanpur to encircle Kathmandy valley.
Transport
RoadHetauda's commercial prominence started with the construction of Tribhuwan Highway, the first highway built in the country. Its future depends on a second highway link that has been discussed for over a decade. The proposed link to Kathmandu through a series of tunnels will reduce the present length of 133 km via Tribhuwan Highway and 224 km via Mugling to a length of less than 60 km. Considering the need for a shorter route from Kathmandu to India and a transit point to sustain trade between the two fastest growing economies of India and China, the importance of Hetauda as a trade route is set to receive a big leap, if this proposed tunnel comes into existence. Recently, the road way from Kulekhani hydro-project is running as has became very popular of its short route of about nearly 83 km from Hetauda valley to Kathmandu. In this route there are also many ways road ways which are now currently being used if any obstacles happen in other ways. One we can go through the Kulekhani hydro-project through Fakhel Village and in obstacles we can also go from Markhu and Sisneri villages towards Kathmandu.But,all these are not totally black topped pitched and are in construction.
Railways
A branch of Indian Railways reaches the other side of the mountain range over which Hetauda lies. But it was many years before and that lies away from the road areas

History of Bombay

History
Kanheri Caves served as a centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient timesMumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands: Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli, and Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba).[22] Pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai by archaeologist Todd in 1939 suggest that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age.[23] It is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited. Perhaps at the beginning of the Common era (2000 years ago), or even possibly earlier, they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community.[24] In the third century BCE, the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire, during its expansion in the south, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha.[25] The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were excavated in the mid-third century BCE,[26] and served as an important centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient times.[27] The city then was known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.[28]Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties: Satavahanas, Western Kshatrapas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris, Konkan Mauryas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas,[29] before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260.[30] Some of the oldest edifice in the city built during this period are, Jogeshwari Caves (520 to 525),[31] Elephanta Caves (sixth to seventh century),[32] Walkeshwar Temple (10th century),[33] and Banganga Tank (twelfth century).[34] King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the 12th or 13th century, and established his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).[35] The Pathare Prabhus, one of the earliest known settlers of the city, were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat by Bhimdev.[36] The Muslim rulers of Gujarat annexed the islands in 1348.[37] They were later governed by the Gujarat Sultanate from 1391 to 1534. The Sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many mosques, prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah in Mahim, built in honour of the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431.[38] From 1429 to 1431, the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahamani Sultanate of Deccan.[39][40] In 1493, Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahamani Sultanate attempted to conquer the islands, but was defeated.[41]

The Haji Ali Dargarh was built in 1431, when Mumbai was under the Gujarat SultanateThe Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid-16th century.[42] Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun, Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with Portuguese settlers on 23 December 1534. According to the treaty, the seven islands of Bombay, the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese. The territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535.[43] The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay.[44] Some of the oldest Catholic churches in the city such as the St. Michael's Church at Mahim (1534),[45] St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri (1579),[46] St. Andrew's Church at Bandra (1580),[47] and Gloria Church at Byculla (1632),[48] date from the Portuguese era. On 11 May 1661, the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, placed the islands in possession of the British Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.[49] However, Salsette, Bassein, Mazagaon, Parel, Worli, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession. From 1665 to 1666, the British managed to acquire Mahim, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala.[50]These islands were in turn leased to the British East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £10 per annum by the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668.[51] The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675.[52] The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan, the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire, in October 1672,[53] Rickloffe van Goen, the Governor-General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673,[54] and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673.[53] In 1687, the British East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay. The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency.[55] Following the transfer, Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company's establishments in India.[56] Towards the end of the 17th century, the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 1689–90.[57] The Portuguese presence ended in Bombay when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured Salsette in 1737, and Bassein in 1739.[58] By the middle of the 18th century, Bombay began to grow into a major trading town, and received a huge influx of migrants from across India.[59] Later, the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774. With the Treaty of Surat (1775), the British formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein, resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha War.[60] The British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas through the Treaty of Purandar (1776),[61] and later through the Treaty of Salbai (1782), signed to settle the outcome of the First Anglo-Maratha War.[62]

Ships in Bombay Harbour (c. 1731). Bombay emerged as a significant trading town during the mid-18th centuryFrom 1782 onwards, the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass. This project, known as the Hornby Vellard, was completed by 1784.[63] In 1817, the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II, the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Kirkee.[64] Following his defeat, almost the whole of the Deccan came under British suzerainty, and were incorporated in Bombay Presidency. The success of the British campaign in the Deccan witnessed the freedom of Bombay from all attacks by native powers.[65] By 1845, the seven islands were coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project.[66] On 16 April 1853, India's first passenger railway line was established, connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thane.[67] During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city became the world's chief cotton trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city's stature.[68] The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea.[69] In September 1896, Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week.[70] About 850,000 people fled Bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected.[71] As the capital of the Bombay Presidency, it witnessed the Indian independence movement, with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and the The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events.[72][73] After India's independence in 1947, the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State. The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into Bombay State. Subsequently, the city became the capital of Bombay State.[74] In April 1950, Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs of Salsette and Bombay City for the purposes of municipal administration.[75]



The Hutatma Chowk memorial, built to honour the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. (Flora Fountain is on its left in the background)In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.[76] In 1956, the States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra–Gujarat with Bombay as its capital. Bombay Citizens' Committee, an advocacy group comprising of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay's independent status.[77] In the 1957 elections, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed these proposals, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra.[78] Following protests by the movement in which 105 people were killed by police at Flora Fountain, Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960.[79] Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat.[80] Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them.[81] As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, Flora Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk (Martyr's Square), and a memorial was erected.[82]The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs. In the late 1960s, Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed.[83] The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) was set up on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the Bombay metropolitan region.[84] In August 1979, a sister township of New Bombay was founded by City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) across Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Bombay's population.[85] The Jawaharlal Nehru Port, which currently handles 55–60% of India's containerized cargo, was commissioned on 26 May 1989 at Nhava Sheva with a view to de-congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city.[86]The past two decades have seen an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city. Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, the city was rocked by the Hindu-Muslim riots of 1992–93 in which more than 1,000 people were killed.[87] On 12 March 1993, a series of 13 co-ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries.[88] In 2006, 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city's commuter trains.[89] In 2008, a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths, 308 injuries, and severe damage to a couple of heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels.[90] Today, Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub.[91] For several decades it has been the home of India's main financial services, and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment.[92] From being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade, Mumbai has become South Asia's largest city and home of the world's most prolific film industry

BEAUTIFUL BOMBAY

Mumbai (Marathi: मुंबई, Mumbaī, IPA: [ˈmʊm.bəi] (help·info)), formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Mumbai ranks among the most populous cities in the world in terms of population, with a city proper having a population of approximately 14 million inhabitants,[1] and along with the neighbouring cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane, an urban agglomeration with a population of around 19 million people.[3] Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. As of 2009, Mumbai was named an Alpha world city.[4]The seven islands that came to constitute Bombay were home to communities of fishing colonies. For centuries, the islands came under the control of successive kingdoms and indigenous empires before being ceded to Portuguese settlers and subsequently to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th century, Bombay emerged as a significant trading town. Economic and educational development characterised the city during the 19th century. It became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century. When India became independent in 1947, the city was incorporated into Bombay State. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. It was renamed Mumbai in 1995.[5]Mumbai is the commercial and entertainment centre of India, generating 5% of India's GDP,[6] and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 40% of maritime trade, and 70% of capital transactions to India's economy.[7] Mumbai is home to important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, the National Stock Exchange of India and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian companies and multinational corporations. The city also houses India's Hindi film and television industry, known as Bollywood. Mumbai's business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India and, in turn, make the city a potpourri of many communities and cultures.

Toponymy
"Mumbai" written in Marathi language at the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower.The name Mumbai is an eponym, etymologically derived from Mumba or Maha-Amba—the name of the Koli goddess Mumbadevi—and Aai, "mother" in Marathi.[8] The former name Bombay had its origins in the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived in the area and called it by various names, which finally took the written form Bombaim, still common in current Portuguese use.[9] After the British gained possession of the city in the 17th century, it was believed to be anglicised to Bombay from the Portuguese Bombaim.[10] The city was known as Mumbai or Mambai to Marathi and Gujarati-speakers, and as Bambai in Hindi, Persian, and Urdu. It is sometimes still referred to by its older names, such as Kakamuchee and Galajunkja.[11][12] The name was officially changed to its Marathi pronunciation of Mumbai in November 1995.[13] This came at the insistence of the Hindu nationalist Shiv Sena party, that had just won the Maharashtra state elections and mirrored similar name changes across the country. However, the city is still commonly referred to as Bombay by many of its residents.[14]



"Mumbai" written in Marathi language at the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower.A widespread explanation of the origin of the traditional English name Bombay holds that it was derived from a Portuguese name meaning "good bay". This is based on the fact that bom (masc.) is Portuguese for "good" whereas the English word "bay" is similar to the Portuguese baía (fem., bahia in old spelling). The normal Portuguese rendering of "good bay" would have been boa bahia rather than the grammatically incorrect bom bahia. However, it is possible to find the form baim (masc.) for "little bay" in 16th-century Portuguese.[15] Portuguese scholar José Pedro Machado in his Dicionário Onomástico Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa (Portuguese Dictionary of Onomastics and Etymology), seems to reject the "Bom Bahia" hypothesis, asserting that Portuguese records mentioning the presence of a bay at the place led the English to assume that the noun (bahia, "bay") was an integral part of the Portuguese toponym, hence the English version Bombay, adapted from Portuguese.[16]Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai in 1507.[17] The earliest Portuguese writer to refer to the city as Bombaim was Gaspar Correia in 1508, as recorded in his Lendas da Índia ("Legends of India").[18][19] Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa mentions a reference to the city in a complex form, as Tana-Maiambu or Benamajambu in 1516.Tana appears to refer to the name of the adjoining town of Thane, and Maiambu seems to refer to Mumba-Devi, the Hindu goddess after which the place is named in Marathi.[20] Other variations of the name recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries are, Mombayn (1525), Bombay (1538), Bombain (1552), Bombaym (1552), Monbaym (1554), Mombaim (1563), Mombaym (1644), Bambaye (1666), Bombaiim (1666), Bombeye (1676), and Boon Bay (1690).[

CITY OF JAFFNA

Jaffna or Yazhpanam (Tamil: யாழ்ப்பாணம், Sinhala: යාපනය) (யாழ் meaning = Harp and பாணம் meaning = Town, therefore யாழ்ப்பாணம் means Town of (the) Harper) is the capital city of the Northern Province, Sri Lanka. Though most of the residents of Jaffna are Sri Lankan Tamils, there is also a minor presence of Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims) and Portuguese Burghers (Roman Catholics). Almost all Sri Lankan Muslims were driven off from Jaffna by the LTTE in the 1990s, as a result of the ethnic conflict which started in the 1970s [1] which today leaves Jaffna almost exclusively Tamil, apart from the military personnel.EtymologyIn the local Tamil dialect, it is currently spelt as Yaalpaanam and it is generally believed that the term Yaalpaanam is derived from Yaal and Paanam meaning land of the harp player alluding to a myth of a blind lute player receiving the land as a royal grant. Currently in Sinhalese, it is known as Yapanaya. Jaffna may also be a latter-day simplification of the name Yapa Patuna. A prominent port in the area was known as Yapa Patuna in Sinhala and Yaalpaana Pattinam in Tamil since medieval times. The ports of Jaffna were on the ancient silk route which can be traced from China via Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Java and Malaya. Marco Polo vividly described the various aspects of life in Jaffna. He was travelling by the silk route by sea guarding a Chinese princess - a daughter of Kublai Khan - and a future wife of the Persian king. Jaffna was the safest route for an emperor's daughter and a future queen of Persia.[edit] History[edit] Written recordsThe Northern Sri Lanka city of Jaffna has a written history of 2000 years. Along with the Mahavamsa and Chulavamsa, The Yalpana Vaipava Malai, Kailaya Malai, and Irasamurai are some of the books containing historical facts of Jaffna. The Abitta Jataka in the Pali canon refers to the Brahmin sage Akitta (Agastya) who had visited the island of Kara adjacent to Nagadipa. This is identified by some as the present Karaitivu or Karainagar.One of the five great epics of Tamil literature Manimekalai refers to a place called Manipallavam which might well be Jaffna[1]. The archeological ruins in Kantarodai might well confirm this literary reference. Manimekalai speaks about Buddha's visit to Jaffna. The Mahavamsa also mentions that Lord Buddha used his siddhi or yogic powers to visit Jaffna by air to resolve a crisis over a jewel between the Naga chieftains and introduced Buddhism to them. It refers to the port of Jambukola Pattuna, now known as Sambalturai, where ships embarked to India. The Sangam era Tamil literature in the early centuries of the common era included poets Eelattu Poothanthevanar from Mantai in what is today the Mannar District of Sri Lanka.[edit] Jaffna Kingdom.


The Jaffna Kingdom (1215-1619; also known as the Kingdom of Aryacakravarti) began with the invasion of one Magha also called as Kulankai Chakravarti claiming to be from Kalinga in India. Some historians says the Tamil word Kulangai often misspelled as Kalinga because he had a defect in one arm,[2] which is the reason he was called Kulangai. It eventually became a tribute paying client of the Pandyan Empire in India around the 1250s only to become independent with the fragmentation of the Pandyan control. For a brief period in the early and middle fourteenth century it was an ascending power in Sri Lanka with all major kingdoms becoming its tributaries only to become occupied by the rival Kotte Kingdom in the 1450s.After it was reconstituted its rulers energies were directed towards consolidating its economic potential by maximizing revenue from pearls and elephant exports and land revenue. It was less feudalized than most of other Sri Lanka kingdoms of the same period. Important local Tamil literature was produced and Hindu temples were built during this period including an academy for language advancement.The arrival of the Portuguese colonial power in Sri Lanka in 1505 and the understanding of its strategic location in the Palk Strait connecting all interior Sinhalese kingdoms to South India created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and eventually made peace with the Portuguese colonials. Eventually Cankili II (1617-1619) a usurper to the throne confronted the Portuguese and was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom’s independent existence to an end in 1619.[edit] Portuguese colony
Main article: Portuguese CeylonAfter lasting for over 400 years,the Dravidian-influenced Jaffna Kingdom finally lost its independence to the Portuguese in 1621. The Portuguese captured the King of Jaffna Sangili Kumaran and took him to Goa in India along with his sons. After the trial, the Portuguese found him guilty of treason and hanged him along with his sons. With the Jaffna Kingdom’s demise, the only indigenous independent political entity that was not Sinhalese and Buddhist in character came to an end in the Island. The Portuguese built the Jaffna Fort and the moat around it.[edit] Dutch colony
Main article: Dutch CeylonThe Tamils and the Kandyan Kingdom collaborated and conspired with the Dutch rulers of Batavia (today's Jakarta in Indonesia). The Dutch invasion from Batavia brought religious freedom for Tamils and Muslims.The Dutch and later the colonial English ruler reigned for approximately three centuries, with each ruling for approximately 150 years. The Jaffna Tamil has several Portuguese and Dutch words still in usage.During the Dutch rule the islands of the Palk Straits were renamed after Leiden, Kayts and other cities in the Netherlands. The Dutch priest Rev Philippus Baldeus wrote a great historical record similar to Mahawamsa on the Jaffna people and their culture and it was immediately published in Dutch and German with several beautiful pictures. A granite stone inscription at the Point Pedro Market Square still marks the place where Rev Baldeus preached to the Tamils under a big tamarind tree. This tamarind tree was uprooted during the cyclone of 1963.[edit] British colony
Main article: British CeylonWith the Treaty of Amiens all maritime territory under Dutch rule became apart of the British Crown. This included the what is today, Jaffna district. In 1815, the Kandyan Kingdom was brought under British with signing of the Kandyan Convention.British rule began in 1798. Many educational institutions were established during this period. The English language was taught to the locals. The Jaffna Tamils were given higher ranks in government institutions. At this time American missionaries and Anglican missionaries were in close competition with Catholic missionaries in establishing churches and schools in every nook and corner. The Hindu Board of Education in turn established its own network of schools. Several high schools and western style education became the hallmark of Jaffna. Jaffna Tamils became loyal subjects of the ever-expanding British Empire and took the middle-level positions in public service throughout the South East Asian countries of the British Raj (Burma, Malaya, Borneo and Singapore) in the late 1800s/early 1900s.[edit] Christian missionary activity
Main articles: Jaffna Roman Catholic diocese and American Ceylon MissionJaffna also played an important role in the Roman Catholic religious administration of Sri Lanka. It also plays an important role in the administration of the Church of South India in Sri Lanka, a group of Protestant denominations.[edit] Ethnic conflict
Main articles: Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and Human rights in Sri LankaDue to the civil war, the city has witnessed wholesale massacres, disappearances of the civilian population and a deterioration in the human rights situation. Currently it is occupied by the Sri Lankan Army, with full government control; between 1992 and 1995 it was under the control of the LTTE before that the Indian Army IPKF had captured it first in 1989 and handed over to Sri lankan Army after a hard fought battle before its withdrawal from Sri Lanka. Due to ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka, many residents moved out of the city, and thus the population was reduced dramatically. According to the 2001 census, the population of the municipality is about 145,600[citation needed]. The population of the district is currently estimated by the district administration at 600,000. Jaffna also functions as the economic and cultural capital of Sri Lankan Tamils.Jaffna was once a stronghold of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a separatist outfit that seeks to set up an independent Tamil Eelam for Tamil-speaking people in Sri Lanka. Jaffna currently is under the occupation of the government of Sri Lanka.The Jaffna Public library was burnt down by an organized mob in June 1981, when ethnic tensions in the country were building steadily towards war. The Sri Lankan government (United National Party) at that time was accused of letting the paramilitaries loose in Jaffna, following an incident where two Sinhalese policemen were killed by a Tamil group. The library was renovated in 2003 by the government of Sri Lanka.[3][edit] Mass exodus and ethnic cleansing
Main articles: Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora and Expulsion of Muslims from JaffnaMany of the Tamils from this region moved out to other parts of the island or to foreign countries. This exodus of Tamils from Jaffna occurred for a number of reasons.The entire Muslim population of Jaffna was forced to leave within 48 hours in 1990 due to an order by the LTTE allegedly to avenge the ethnic cleansing of Tamils in the East. The mass exodus of Tamils from Jaffna to Vanni is another significant incident in the history of Jaffna. When Sri Lankan Army captured Jaffna from LTTE occupaton in December 1995. Nearly 450,000 Tamils displaced during at that time.[4] There have been claims of human rights violations on both sides. Due to Jaffna becoming a constant battleground between the Sri Lankan military and the LTTE, many people have been displaced. The tight security measures loosened as the war ended.[edit] Demography
Main article: Sri Lankan Tamils85% of the population of the Jaffna and Kilinochchi districts are Hindus. The Hindus follow the Saivite tradition. The remainder are largely Roman Catholics or Protestants, some of whom are descendants of colonial settlers, known as Burghers. The Tamils are divided along caste lines, with the farmer-caste Vellalar forming the majority. However, there are many Caste divisions within the Vellalars and they vary in social status, with various Saiva Vellalars usually on top. The maritime caste known as the Karaiyar dominates the coast. The Karaiyar caste is seen as inferior due to their ancestral profession as fisherman, and due to their lower caste in terms of the ancient Hindu Varna system.Sri Lankan Tamil is the major language spoken in Jaffna by the vast majority of the population. The other language spoken is Sinhala by 1 percent of the population. English is widely spoken and understood in the cities. Tamil and Sinhala is official language of the Sri Lanka. Tamil is the official language and administrative language of the Northern Province.[edit] Culture



Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, Jaffna.



Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, Jaffna.Most Jaffna Tamils belong to the Dravidian culture, thus, Pongal, the Hindu New Year in April, Deepavali, Navaratri and Shivaratri are some of the religious festivals celebrated, see Culture of Sri Lanka.Arts The traditional dance of the Sri Lankan Tamils is called Kooththu. These are a variety of stage dramas. Karthavarayan Kooththu, Sangiliyan Kooththu and Poothaththambi Kooththu are some of the famous Kooththus in Jaffna. The Poothaththambi Kooththu has been staged from the Dutch era. These arts are mainly focused on the historical values of the community and to entertain the people. The villuppattu is one of the famous arts of the tamils. Oyilaattam is a notable variety of dance in the Jaffna peninsula. The South Indian dance and music is also indigenous to Jaffna. Noteworthy here would be Bharata Natyam and Carnatic music - the classical high traditions of Hinduism.Literature
Main article: Sri Lankan Tamil LiteratureA poet called Eelattu Poothanthevanar is mentioned in the ancient Tamil Sangam in Madurai. He was most probably from the North of Sri lanka. The Chief Nalliyakodan of Mantai in what is today Mannar sponsored several Sangam era poets in the Tamil land. Kumanan, another chief from Kudiramalai, also sponsored poets. However, the precise identity of Nalliyakodan and Kumanan is under doubt. This is discussed in Mudaliyar C. Rasanayagam's "Ancient Jaffna".The medieval Tamil court in Jaffna had produced some rare manuscripts on astronomy or ayurveda.



Public Library, Jaffna.Turning to modern times, Arumuga Navalar was born in Nallur in December 1822. He died in 1879. He helped develop modern Tamil prose and freed the language from what had become the stilted classicism of the past with his freer use of words. He translated the Bible into Tamil and then researched Hindu doctrine. Navalar wrote many Hindu religious books and was an outstanding orator. He was the pioneer of religious reforms in the Jaffna Hindu society. C.W Thamotheram pillai, another native of Jaffna, was one of the first two graduates in the Madras Presidency. He obtained his degree from the University of Madras in 1858 and contributed to Tamil studies. Dr. Ananda Coomaraswamy contributed extensively to the study of Indian art in its social context. He was born in 1877.Mallikai, Sudar, Samar, Siriththiran, Alai and Kathambam were some of the Tamil magazines published in the 1970s. Many of them disappeared after the ethnic tension in the late 1980s.The term Pulampeyar Ilakkiyam refers to the literature of the Tamil speaking people who migrated away from their native region. Viduthalai Ilakkiyam is the literature of various Tamil nationalist organizations.Media The first newspaper in Jaffna, Uthayatharakai (Morning Star) was published in 1841 by C.W. Thamotharampillai[5] By the 1940s, daily newspapers had already been started Eelakesari and Virakesari in 1930 and Thinakaran in 1932 and journals committed to the growth of modernistic, socially purposive literature Bharati and Marumalarchi in 1946 had also started coming out.Few newspapers are published in the province now in the principal language of Tamil. None in English and Sinhala. Before the Civil war commenced dozens of newspapers and magazines were published.[edit] EconomySea products, red onion, and tobacco are the main products in Jaffna. Prior to the civil war it was a place of many small scale industries manufacturing household items as well as packaging and food processing for export. Most industrialists have left or closed shops. The present Jaffna economy is facing setbacks because of the unstable connectivity with the south. The prices of goods in Jaffna are relatively high compared to the south. Currently the primary economic activity is trade. The foreign remittance from the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora sustains many people.Jaffna Harbour The pending Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project may increase the productivity of the Jaffna Harbour. Enlargement of the harbour will bring benefits to Sri Lanka. However it might damage the ecosystem of the area. The strategic advantages derive from obtaining a navigable sea route close to the coast, with a reduction in travel distance of more than 350 nautical miles (650 km) (for larger ships). The project is expected to provide a boost to the economic and industrial development of coastal Tamil Nadu in India. The project will be of particular significance to Jaffna, Kankesanthurai, Mannar, Point Pedro and Tuticorin harbour.[edit] Education
See also: List of Secondary Schools in Northern Province, List of Private Schools in Northern Province, and University of JaffnaJaffna is considered to be the most literate district in the whole of Sri Lanka[citation needed] (whose national literacy rate in 2001 was 90.7%[6]). In the early days (before 1970s') Sri Lankan universities were dominated by Jaffna students but currently their enrollment numbers are minimized due to the effects of a district based quota system introduced in the 1970s as well as the effects of the civil war. However, in 1974 the government opened the University of Jaffna which is de facto reserved for students from the region, while they have a quota based access to the other Sri Lankan universities as well.Peter Percival was a Wesleyan Missionary who started several schools in Jaffna including Jaffna Central College, Hartley College, Vembadi Girls School, and the Methodist Girls High School. The first translation of the Bible into Tamil was carried out by Fr Peter Percival and Arumuka Navalar.[citation needed]The Jaffna Hindu College is one of the leading schools in Jaffna. This institution was established by a Hindu asscociation in 1890. The Hindu Board of Education established a network of grant-in-aid schools. Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan established Ramanathan College for Girls and Parameshwarar College for Boys.Founded by American missionaries in 1819, Jaffna College has records of Malaysia, Singaporean, South Indian and even Japanese students enrollment in the 1930s and 1940s. American missionaries also founded many other institutions of higher learning that are still functioning today.[citation needed] Today most students are locals.Jaffna is now considered a backward district for university admission by the University Grants Commission. While district quotas once kept down Jaffna numbers at the universities, today they are increased by the same quotas because of poor performance from Jaffna. Peter Percival arrived in Ceylon in 1926 after Central College was founded. He reorganized the school in 1936 or so.Contributions by Jaffna Tamils The first full translation of the Bible was in Tranquebar in 1723 succeeding partial versions earlier. This Tamil Bible was translated by Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg and Benjamin Schultze. The translation of Fabricius followed—the New Testament in 1772 and Old Testment in 1791. The Jaffna version was by a six member committee, headed by Peter Percival, Principal of Central School. Jaffna at that time had a tremendous fund of scholarship from which to draw, both on the side of Western missionaries as well as on that of Jaffna Tamils. The other missionaries were Levi Spaulding, H. R. Hoisington, Samuel Hutchings, Daniel Poor and Miron Winslow. They knew Hebrew and Greek to translate. Arumuka Navalar was merely one of at least 2 Pandit Assistants who simply put the missionary translation into good Tamil—interestingly a form of Tamil that was soon rejected in Jaffna itself and a new translation modelled on the Tamil of Fabricius is what we use today in Indian and Sri Lankan Churches. Navlar had very limited eudcation and could not be credited with the scholarship and methodology required for serious translation. As the front page of the 1850 Bible says, "Translated out of the original tongues and with former translations diligently compared and revised." Thus the translators themselves do not claim to have made the first translation and this claim comes only from sectarian groups in Jaffna. The Americans founded only one institution of higher learning—Batticotta Seminary

Kataragama Temple

Today it is a fast developing township surrounded by jungle in the deep south of Sri Lanka. But in medieval times it was only a small village. It is situated 228km ESE of Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka.
Kataragama also Katharagama,and Katirkamam (Tamil கதிர்காமம்) is a regionally popular place of pilgrimage of Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim and indigenous Vedda communities of Sri Lanka and South India, where the god Muruga is the main deity
Hindu Katirkamam .

Main article: Katirkamam (Hindu temple)Tamil Hindus of Sri Lanka and South India refer to the place as Katirkamam and it has a famous Hindu shrine dedicated to Lord Katirkaman. The presiding Deity is Lord Murugan or Skanda. Saivite Hindus of South India call him also as Subrahmanya. Following are the other names to identify the same God in the Hindu texts; Kandasamy, Katiradeva, Katiravel, Kartikeya, and Tarakajith. Some of these names are derived from the root Katir from Katirkamam. "Katir" means formless light.The Deity is depicted either with six faces and twelve hands, or one face and four hands. Out of love for Lord Murugan and to mitigate bad karma, bhaktars pierce their cheeks and tongues with vels, pull large chariots carrying murthi of Murugan with large hooks that have been pierced through the skin of their backs. This practice is known as kavadi. Murugan's vahana or vehicle is Mayil, the peacock. There is also a related shrine called as Sella Katirkamam dedicated to the beloved elephant-faced God Ganesha nearby, who is known as Lord Murugan's elder brother.The local river namely Manik Ganga or Manika Gangai (River of Gems) functions as a place of ablution where a sacred bath is taken to purify oneself. Local residents declare that one can be healed of ailments by bathing in it not only from its high gem content but also the medicinal properties of the roots of various trees that line the river through the jungle.[edit] Buddhist Kataragama[hide]
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This box: view • talk • editKataragama is one of the 16 principal places of Buddhist pilgrimage to be visited in Sri Lanka. According to the chronicle of Sri Lankan history the Mahawamsa, when the Bo-sapling or Pipil tree sapling under which Gotama Buddha attained enlightenment in North India was brought to the city of Anuradhapura 2,300 years ago, the warriors or Kshatriyas from Kataragama were present on the occasion to pay homage and respect.

Kiri Vehera at NightThe Buddhist Kiri Vehera Dagoba which stands in close proximity to the Hindu temple was built by the King Mahasena. According to the legend, Lord Buddha, on his third and the last visit to Sri Lanka, was believed to have met the King Mahasena who ruled over the Kataragama area in 580 BC. Thus the local Sinhalese Buddhists believe that Kataragama was sanctified by Lord Buddha. The King met the Lord Buddha and listened to the Buddha's discourse and as a token of gratitude, the Dagoba was built on that exact spot where it now stands.[edit] Pre Hindu and Buddhist originsThe deity at Kataragama is indigenous and long-celebrated in Sri Lankan lore and legend, and originally resides on the top of mountain called Wædahiti Kanda (or hill of the indigenous Vedda people) just outside of the Kataragama town. Since ancient times an inseparable connection between the God and his domain has existed. At one time the local deity was identified with God Saman , a deity that was important to the Sinhalese people before their conversion to Buddhism.As was the Sinhalese tradition, local ancestors, rulers and kings were ordained as deities. God Saman also became a god in that way. Therefore it is also believed that King Mahasena came to be worshiped as God Katharagama.Till today the indigenous Vedda people come to venerate at the temple complex from their forest abodes. As a link to the Vedda past the temple holds its annual festival, that celebrates the God's courtship and marriage to a Vedda princess, in July to August.Secretive shrines outside the main temple complex are also used in sorcery and cursing by local Sinhalese. [1][edit] Temple of SyncretismKataragama is a multi-religious sacred city as it contains an Islamic Mosque within its temple complex as well.In spite of the differences of caste and creed, many Sri Lankans show great reverence to God Kataragama. They honor him as a very powerful deity and beg divine help to overcome their personal problems or for success in business enterprises etc., with the fervent hope that their requests would be granted. They believe that God Kataragama actually exists and is vested with extraordinary power to assist those who ever appeal to him with faith and devotion in times of their distress or calamity. Many Tamils from other areas of Sri Lanka visit Kataragama.[edit] TransportIn 1992, it was proposed to extend the railway from Matara to Kataragama and beyond. The Kataragama railway extension is currently being constructed under a three phase accelerated development program. The first phase of the construction has already begun and will consist of the 27 km stretch from Matara to Beliatta costing 60 Million rupees; construction has already commenced on the bridge over the Nilwala River by the State Engineering Corporation. The entire project is expected to take six years to complete and will cost around three billion rupees.